Empowerment and Sport Feminism: A Critical Analysis

The idea that sport and physical activity empower women is common, perpetuated by sources as diverse as the popular media and feminist scholars. But not only is empowerment a notoriously under-theorised concept, it is especially problematic when applied to physical activity. While sport may appear to endow power (by helping women increase their confidence and self-esteem), organised physical activity could equally be said to disempower (it can make women feel inadequate, or convince them that their bodies are flawed and in need of re-working). Similarly, whatever empowering properties sport may nurture, these typically celebrate masculinities, tend to devalue other kinds of physical prowess and legitimise aggression. The data in this article includes a typology that classifies 38 recently published examples of sport feminist literature in the context of empowerment. The relationship between sport and empowerment is analysed and evaluated in detail. Articles are classified into one of four broad categories, based on firstly, the author's perspective on sport, and secondly, whether they recognise any contradictions in their position, and how they subsequently deal with these contradictions. For example, some scholars identify social contradictions physical activity simultaneously means empowering experiences and conforming to social expectations but they do not provide an adequate discussion of the issues. Careful analysis reveals that the literature does not adequately address these contradictions; it can only be concluded that it is not known if, how, why, or under what conditions, physical activity empowers women. It appears so obvious, natural and simple. Organised sport and fitness activities make women feel great about themselves and their bodies; they liberate women, give them autonomy and empower them. But what, precisely, is the mechanism of this process or phenomenon? Is it real? Or is it an illusion? Is it universal, or does it depend on the individual woman, or the sport? The assertion that sport empowers women is reinforced by both the popular media and respected scholars. The media often construe fitness pursuits as empowering. Women's fitness magazines, according to Tina Eskes and her colleagues, describe 'aerobics, weight-lifting and healthy eating habits . . . as ways of exercising command, control, and mastery over one's body, and consequently, one's life'. Advertisements often make bold assertions such as: 'You don't just shape your body. You shape your life'. Large corporations such as Nike also perpetuate myths that exercise and dieting empower women. Some feminist scholars recognise the contradictions and set out to explore them. Frequently, however, empowerment is inserted into discussions of women and sport with little explanation or consideration of the counterarguments. For example, can one conclude that a woman is empowered because she says that physical activity makes her 'feel better about herself?